Rocky planets orbiting M-dwarf stars are prime targets for characterizing terrestrial atmospheres, yet their long-term evolution under intense stellar winds and high-energy radiation remains poorly understood.
![[LEFT] Logarithmic ion number density (cm−3 ) distributions of O+ (left column) and O2 + (right column) in the X-Z plane for Kepler-1649 b’s dayside at 0.7 Gyr (top row) and 4.8 Gyrs (bottom row). Coordinates are normalized to the planetary radius RP. [RIGHT] Logarithmic ion number density (cm−3 ) distributions of O+ (left column) and O2 + (right column) in the X-Z plane for Kepler-1649 c’s dayside at 0.7 Gyr (top row) and 4.8 Gyrs (bottom row). Coordinates are normalized to the planetary radius RP. -- astro-ph.EP](https://i0.wp.com/astrobiology.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Evolving-Atmospheric-Ion-Escape.png?resize=1200%2C720&ssl=1)
Rocky planets orbiting M-dwarf stars are prime targets for characterizing terrestrial atmospheres, yet their long-term evolution under intense stellar winds and high-energy radiation remains poorly understood.